An introduction to the U.S. court system

The United States court system is a complex yet crucial component of the United States federal government and its role in national governance. The judicial system is very nuanced and plays a pivotal role in ensuring equal justice under the law for its citizens. From resolving civil disputes to guaranteeing legal counsel to a criminal defendant in both federal and state courts, the courts have immense power in adjudicating the law and determining the consequences for breaking the law. In this article, I will break down the structure of the judicial system and its long-winded history, present a detailed account of all the different courts and their distinct roles, and illustrate the profound impact the institution has on the country. From the formation of federal courts in 1789 to their sustenance into the twenty-first century, the courts have grown rapidly but still remain a powerful institution that supplements and stands on equal footing with the executive and legislative branches of the United States of America. 

Historical Background: The Creation and Evolution of the Courts

The creation of the United States’ court system can be traced back to the Judiciary Act of 1789, a federal statute that formally established the federal court system in the nation. However, the roots of the American court system go back to the colonial world. The North American colonies in the seventeenth and early to mid eighteenth centuries operated under the British crown to follow the customs of English common law. The English common law contained uncodified laws that were generally formulated from precedents based on legislative and judicial decisions. The effect of the English common law was crucial in shaping the early judicial system of the United States. For example, the common law system in the colonies focused on this adversarial approach where two parties argued before a judge, who was the moderator, and a jury, with no legal experience, to decide the facts of the case and apply them to the law. This influence of English common law was significant in the formation of the United States court system by deriving its similar structure and principles and applying them to the current structure. In addition to adhering to the common law, the thirteen original colonies were chartered under the crown to function as either a royal, self-governing, or proprietary colony. The royal colonies were strictly controlled by the crown, and their main purpose was to generate wealth for England. These colonies had a governor and a council appointed by the crown to govern the colony in favor of England. The self-governing colonies were chartered to joint-stock companies that had fewer restrictions and generally implemented their own model of governance. Finally, proprietary colonies were given to individuals on behalf of the crown. Given the different systems of governance and the distinct operations of the colonies, the judicial system unified them through centralization. The courts of the colonies were fairly simple in structure, where the courts handled both civil and criminal matters. The courts were structured with three levels, where the lowest level of authority was the tribunal of  justices of peace, which settled small disputes. Above them were the county courts and then the superior courts. The matter of jurisdiction for the lower courts was limited from the higher courts. It is important to note that this colonial structure of the hierarchical and leveled court system carried on through the revolution and into the governmental structure of the new nation. 

After the revolutionary war and the attainment of American Independence, the U.S. constitution, ratified on June 21, 1788, made history by establishing the Supreme Court of the United States. Prior to the establishment of an independent judicial system, the Articles of Confederation offered no independent executive or judicial branch. However, in the new constitution, Article III is known for creating the federal judicial system. Notably, in Article III, Section I, it is noted that “the judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish.” Hence, establishing the Supreme Court as the highest court in the land and granting Congress the rights to establish additional lower courts as it deems necessary. Similarly, Article III, Section II, furthers the development of the system by bringing the matter of jurisdiction into question. Clause II of Section II states that for matters “affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, and those in which a State shall be Party, the supreme Court shall have original Jurisdiction.” This is significant as the newly established Supreme Court is granted original jurisdiction and gets to be the first court that hears a case regarding foreign officials, public ministers, or even cases involving one or more states. Similarly, it follows that “in all the other Cases before mentioned, the supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make.” The matter of appellate jurisdiction is drawn upon where the Supreme Court hears and decides cases based on appeals from lower courts or through a writ of certiorari. However, the majority of the cases that the Supreme Court hears now are from appellate jurisdiction, where the Supreme Court hears appeals from lower courts. Overall, Article III of the Constitution laid the groundwork for the creation of the judicial system, but it was not until the Federal Statute of 1789 that the courts started to expand and establish their legitimacy within the nation. 

One of the first acts of Congress was the passage of the Judiciary Act of 1789, which established thirteen judicial districts, created the Eastern, Middle, and Southern circuits, and assigned a chief justice along with five associate judges for the United States Supreme Court. In addition to the creation of the federal court system and its tripartite structure, the act clarified matters of jurisdiction. Congress established that the district and circuit courts would have specific and limited jurisdiction. Additionally, the Supreme Court would retain its original jurisdiction along with the ability to hear appeals from the circuit courts and state courts. The structure of the federal courts followed this structure for a century, but the circuit courts expanded into appellate courts with the Judiciary Act of 1891. The Judiciary Act of 1891, also known as the Evarts Act, established the appellate courts for each district at that time and solidified them as the first federal courts to exclusively hear appeals from the district courts. The main difference rested in the fact that the circuit courts were designed to be both a trial court and handle appeals from their jurisdiction. However, the newly transformed appellate courts were exclusively designed to handle appeals from their respective district courts. Hence, the United States judicial system was established, reformed, and solidified as an independent entity that serves as a check against the legislative and executive branches of the United States. 

The dual-court system: state courts vs. federal courts

The judicial system in the United States operates on a dual-court system where jurisdiction is divided between state and federal courts. The federal court system deals mainly with federal law, disputes between different states, and foreign officials. On the contrary, the state system deals with state law, the state constitution, and disputes between parties in the same state. It is also important to note that more than 90% of the cases go to the state court, while a few go to the federal courts. While it is established that federal courts deal with the federal law and state courts deal with the state law, state courts sometimes might hear cases regarding the federal law, and federal courts might have to apply state law in certain circumstances. In addition to the distinctive court system, federal judges are directly appointed by the President of the United States and confirmed by the Senate. Federal judges enjoy constitutional protection and maintain their tenure for a lifetime while being insulated from political influence. However, state judges enjoy fewer constitutional privileges and follow the procedures of their individual state constitutions. In addition, federal courts are granted limited jurisdiction, and state courts are operated under general jurisdiction. All federal courts have limited jurisdiction; they can only hear and decide cases that arise under federal law. In addition, they can sometimes decide cases that meet the standards of diversity jurisdiction. Diversity jurisdiction is established in Article III, Section II, and Clause I, and can be invoked in a civil action of dispute between people of two different states or between a person of a state and a person of a foreign state. In addition, the dispute must also exceed $75,000 to be heard in a federal court. In contrast, state courts operate under general jurisdiction and are not directly limited by the constitution in the types of cases they can hear. General jurisdiction allows state courts to hear cases that are not exclusively reserved for the federal courts. As federal and state courts are distinguished by the jurisdiction they have about what cases they can hear, there is a situation in which they both have jurisdiction to hear and decide about a case. Concurrent jurisdiction is when two or more courts have jurisdiction to hear a case under certain circumstances. The dual court system structures the United States judicial system to allow federal and state courts to operate under distinctive rules and allows them to be centralized under the role of delivering equal justice under law. 

State Courts: Primary Role and Function in the United States Judicial System 

The state court system differs vastly on a case-by-case basis, as each state has its own constitution and its own laws. However, the division of power between the federal government and the state government is known as federalism. Federalism is a system of governance that allows for a territory to be controlled by both the state government and the federal government. Hence, allowing for the dual sovereignty of a territory in terms of the jurisdiction between the state and federal courts. However, when it comes to determining the supremacy of one law over another, the Supremacy Clause establishes precedent for federal law over state law. However, the reserve clause from the tenth amendment establishes that “the powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.” Hence, establishing a division of power between the state and the federal government. The state court system is a tripartite structure that contains state district courts, state appellate courts, and the state supreme courts. The state district courts, also known as the trial courts, have general jurisdiction and can hear civil and criminal cases that are not vested in another court. The next level of authority comes from the state court of appeals, which is responsible for hearing appeals from state district courts. The highest level of authority in the state court system is the individual state supreme court, or the court of last resort. The number of judges for district, appellate, and supreme courts varies significantly as each state has its own constitution and system for how it chooses its judges. In addition to the tripartite structure, there are specialized state courts. Some of these state specialized courts include family courts, probate courts, juvenile courts, and traffic courts. Each state handles distinctive  specialized courts that have diverse expertise and limited jurisdiction. For example, family courts handle exclusively familial matters. Probate courts deal with estates and guardianships of the deceased. Juvenile courts deal with legal issues surrounding minors, while traffic courts deal with various traffic violations. All in all, it is entirely dependent on each individual state and its system to grant specialized courts and determine how many state courts are required, depending on the volume of people and cases. 

State Trial Courts

The state district or trial courts have the lowest level of authority in the state court system and vary in size depending on each state. For example, Rhode Island has only one state district court, while Texas has over 450 state district courts. The state district courts function similarly to trial courts that handle both civil and criminal matters, with courts assigned to either civil or criminal matters. In most states, district judges are appointed or elected by the people. In contrast to federal judges, state judges do not enjoy the same constitutional protections and are generally not appointed for a lifetime. The number of judges also varies according to each state, depending on its population and the number of courts it houses. The proceedings of a district court occur regularly in an adversarial approach with a plaintiff and a defendant in a civil case and a prosecutor and a defendant in a criminal case. Trials are either decided through a verdict reached through a trial by jury or a bench trial, in which the judge determines the verdict. The role of the state district court is important as it applies state law and sometimes federal law, and most cases start out at the level of state district courts. 

State Appellate Courts 

The State Appellate Courts are the second level of authority in the state court system, where they are tasked with hearing appeals on the decisions made by the lower state district courts to ensure that the law has been applied accurately. The number of state appellate courts varies significantly depending on the population and caseload of each state. The appeals courts serve as intermediate courts between the district courts and the state supreme courts. State appellate courts are not like state trial courts, where they conduct trials in both civil and criminal matters. On the contrary, state appellate courts have oral arguments representing two sides in which one side argues for a reversal of the decision (appellant) and the other defends the decision (appellee) who responds to the appellant. The appellate courts can either affirm the decision of the lower court, reverse the decision, or remand it by sending it back to the lower courts for further proceedings. The appellate courts are powerful courts that control the decisions of the lower district courts and determine whether the law was applied correctly in the lower courts. 

State Supreme Courts

The State Supreme Court is the highest level of authority in the state court system and is responsible for determining the decisions made by the lower courts. However, it is noted that both Texas and Oklahoma have two high courts, one for civil matters and another for criminal matters. Each state differs in its judicial structure, and each state supreme court is different. In most states, judges are either elected to their position or appointed by their state governor. The number of judges for each supreme court is distinct, but something that unites them is the fact that state supreme court judges decide which cases to take up, similar to the Supreme Court of the United States. On the state level, judges serve limited terms and must seek out additional terms as they do not enjoy the privilege of lifetime tenure. However, most states have a retirement age for judges set between 70-75, unlike federal courts. All in all, the state supreme courts are the most crucial part of the state court system and hold immense power in determining and applying state law.

Federal Courts: Primary Role and Function in the United States Judicial System 

The federal court system has a tripartite structure that contains district courts, appellate courts, and the Supreme Court of the United States. District courts stand at the lowest level of the federal judicial system and serve as the trial courts for federal cases. The next level of authority comes from the appellate courts, which are in charge of hearing appeals and reviewing decisions of the lower district courts. Finally, the Supreme Court has the highest authority in interpreting the constitution and federal law, setting precedents for the rest of the nation. The majority of the federal courts are authorized by Article III and are called Article III courts. Article III courts are categorized as the federal district courts, appellate courts, and the Supreme Court, where the judges are appointed for a lifetime tenure by the President and confirmed by the Senate. As mentioned before, federal judges are insulated from political influence by being appointed for a lifetime and are granted constitutional protection. However, judges can be impeached by Congress through an impeachment vote in the House of Representatives and a conviction by the Senate. The requirement for appointing Article III judges is established in Article III, Section I, where “The Judges, both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behaviour, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services, a Compensation, which shall not be diminished during their Continuance in Office.” Hence, ensuring that the judicial branch operated independently. Apart from Article III courts, Congress has established Article I courts, which are legislative courts that do not exercise the same judicial power as the Article III courts. Article I courts were created by Congress under its legislative authority of Article I. Article I, Section VIII, Clause IX, declares that Congress has the power “to constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court,” establishing courts that handle specialized cases that do not fall under the jurisdiction of Article III courts. In contrast to Article III judges, Article I judges do not enjoy the same constitutional protections and are not appointed for life. However, they are appointed in a similar manner by the President and confirmed by the Senate. Article I courts are also smaller in number and are composed of: 

*United States Tax Court

*United States Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces

*Court of Military Commission Review

*United States Court of Appeals for Veteran Claims

*United States Court of Federal Claims

*United States Bankruptcy Courts

The United States Tax Court has jurisdiction over federal income tax and contains nineteen federally appointed judges. The judges serve a fifteen-year term. The United States Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces has appellate jurisdiction over matters of appeals over the military, contains five federally appointed judges, and the judges serve a fifteen-year term. The Court of Military Commission Review has appellate jurisdiction over appeals from United States military courts, contains at least three appellate military judges, and judges generally serve a five-year term (though it usually varies). The United States Court of Appeals for Veteran Claims has appellate jurisdiction over veteran appeals, contains seven federally appointed judges, and judges serve a fifteen-year term. The United States Court of Federal Claims has concurrent jurisdiction with district courts over contractual money claims under $10,000 and exclusive jurisdiction over $10,000. The Court of Federal Claims is authorized to contain sixteen judges, and each judge serves a fifteen-year term. Lastly, the United States Bankruptcy Court has jurisdiction over bankruptcy claims from the federal district courts. The bankruptcy courts have 352 authorized judgeships, and judges serve a fourteen-year term. It is important to note that some of these terms are renewable, and some judges serve multiple terms. 

In addition to the specialized Article I courts, the Court of International Trade is a federal specialized court under Article III that has jurisdiction over matters of international trade and customs issues. The court has at least nine federally appointed judges that serve a lifetime tenure. Generally, Article III and Article I courts contain 1,770 federal judgeships across 209 federal courts. Some of these judgeships are appointed for a lifetime, and some can have varying limiting terms. All in all, the federal judicial system is very complex and nuanced but is a heavily centralized structure that works effectively to deliver equal justice under law. 

Federal District Courts

The Federal District Courts are the trial courts of the federal judicial system and handle both civil and criminal cases. There are 94 district courts in the United States, and each district has at least one district judge. The whole nation has 677 federal district judges. These judges are appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate. The tenure of a federal district court is lifetime, as judges can be removed by retirement or impeachment. There is at least one district in each state, and in the District of Columbia, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, the Northern Mariana Islands, the Virgin Islands, and Guam. 

The 94 districts are as follows:

Alabama 

• Middle District of Alabama 
• Northern District of Alabama 
• Southern District of Alabama 

Alaska 

• District of Alaska 

Arizona 

• District of Arizona 

Arkansas 

• Eastern District of Arkansas
• Western District of Arkansas 

California 

• Central District of California 
• Eastern District of California
• Northern District of California 
• Southern District of California 

Colorado 

• District of Colorado 

Connecticut 

• District of Connecticut 

District of Columbia 

• D.C. District Court

Delaware 

• District of Delaware 

Florida 

• Middle District of Florida 
• Northern District of Florida 
• Southern District of Florida 

Georgia 

•  Middle District of Georgia
•  Northern District of Georgia 
•  Southern District of Georgia 

   Guam 

• District of Guam

   Hawaii 

•  District of Hawaii

    Idaho 

• District of Idaho

    Illinois 

•  Central District of Illinois 
•  Northern District of Illinois
•  Southern District of Illinois

    Indiana 

• Northern District of Indiana 
• Southern District of Indiana 

     Iowa

• Northern District of Iowa
• Southern District of Iowa 

    Kansas 

• District of Kansas 

    Kentucky 

•  Eastern District of Kentucky 
•  Western District of Kentucky 

    Louisiana 

• Eastern District of Louisiana 
• Middle District of Louisiana 
• Western District of Louisiana 

    Maine 

• District of Maine 

   Maryland 

• District of Maryland 

  Massachusetts 

• District of Massachusetts 

  Michigan 

• Eastern District of Michigan 
• Western District of Michigan

 Minnesota 

• District of Minnesota 

Missouri 

• Eastern District of Missouri
• Western District of Missouri

Mississippi 

• Northern District of Mississippi 
• Southern District of Mississippi 

Montana 

• District of Montana 

Nebraska 

• District of Nebraska

 Nevada 

• District of Nevada 

New Hampshire 

• District of New Hampshire 

New Jersey 

• District of New Jersey 

New Mexico 

•  District of New Mexico 

New York

• Eastern District of New York 
• Northern District of New York 
• Southern District of New York
• Western District of New York

North Carolina 

•  Eastern District of North Carolina 
•  Middle District of North Carolina 
•  Western District of North Carolina 

North Dakota 

• District of North Dakota 

Northern Mariana Islands 

• District of Northern Mariana Islands 

Ohio 

• Northern District of Ohio
• Southern District of Ohio

Oklahoma 

• Eastern District of Oklahoma 
• Northern District of Oklahoma 
• Western District of Oklahoma 

Oregon 

• District of Oregon

Pennsylvania 

• Eastern District of Pennsylvania 
• Middle District of Pennsylvania 
• Western District of Pennsylvania 

Puerto Rico 

• District of Puerto Rico

Rhode Island 

• District of Rhode Island 

South Carolina 

• District of South Carolina 

South Dakota 

• District of South Dakota 

Tennessee 

• Eastern District of Tennessee 
• Middle District of Tennessee 
• Western District of Tennessee 

Texas 

• Eastern District of Texas
• Northern District of Texas
• Southern District of Texas
• Western District of Texas 

Utah

• District of Utah 

Vermont 

• District of Vermont 

Virginia 

• Eastern District of Virginia 
• Western District of Virginia 

Virgin Islands 

•  District of Virgin Islands 

Washington 

• Eastern District of Washington 
• Western District of Washington 

West Virginia 

• Northern District of West Virginia 
• Southern District of West Virginia 

Wisconsin 

• Eastern District of Wisconsin 
• Western District of Wisconsin 

Wyoming 

•   District of Wyoming

The 94 districts consist of at least one district in every state and at most four districts in each jurisdiction. There is at least one judge per district; however, judgeships in every district vary significantly. For example, the District of Vermont and the Western District of Wisconsin only have two federal judges for their respective districts. However, the Southern District of New York and the Central District of California have twenty-eight judges. The number of federal judges assigned per district depends on the amount of caseload. Districts with fewer judges usually have a lighter caseload than districts with more judges. Given the varying number of judges in each district, not every judge in a district decides a case. Sometimes cases are decided by an individual judge who is assigned to a case from its pre-trial motion to its end. In some circumstances, cases are decided by a panel of three judges. The federal district court system is vast, and each one operates differently than its counterparts. 

The Federal Court of Appeals 

The U.S. Court of Appeals consists of thirteen intermediate appellate courts that review the decisions of the district courts in their jurisdiction based on a request to appeal the decision that was made in the district court. The Court of Appeals usually has three federally appointed judges that review the decision of the case and determine whether the case in the district court was decided correctly. The court of appeals can generally decide in favor of the lower district courts or overturn their decision in favor of the party that has brought forth the appeal. In addition, the court of appeals can also remand it by sending it back to the district court for further proceedings. The main reason for an appeal is based on a party that is dissatisfied with the outcome of the case and is arguing on the grounds that the trial was conducted unfairly or that the trial judge applied the law incorrectly. The federal court of appeals follows the Federal Rules of Appellate Procedure, and a randomly selected panel of three judges hears the appeal. There are 179 authorized judgeships on the federal court of appeals, and each circuit has a different number of judges depending on the size of its jurisdiction and the amount of caseload that it receives. In certain cases, appellate courts have en banc hearings, where all the judges hear an appeal and decide its outcome. En banc hearings occur when an appeal and its legal implications are considered important, and the court wants all of its available judges to hear the appeal.

The thirteen federal court of appeals and their territorial jurisdiction as follows: 

First Circuit Court of Appeals

•  Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Puerto Rico, and Rhode Island, 

Second Circuit Court of Appeals

• Connecticut, New York, Vermont 

Third Circuit Court of Appeals  

• Delaware, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and the Virgin Islands 

Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals 

• Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, and West Virginia 

Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals

• Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas 

Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals 

• Kentucky, Michigan, Ohio, and Tennessee 

Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals

•  Illinois, Indiana, and Wisconsin 

Eight Circuit Court of Appeals 

• Arkansas, Iowa, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, and South Dakota 

Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals 

• Alaska, Arizona, California, Guam, Hawaii, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, Northern Mariana Islands, Oregon, and Washington 

Tenth Circuit Court of Appeals 

• Colorado, Kansas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Utah, Wyoming

Eleventh Circuit Court of Appeals 

• Alabama, Florida, and Georgia 

 D.C. Circuit Court of Appeals 

• District of Columbia 

 Federal Circuit Court of Appeals 

• The Federal Circuit Court of Appeals has nationwide jurisdiction and hears specific cases like patents and claims against the federal government. 

As listed above, the thirteen federal courts of appeals all have exclusive jurisdiction over their territory, with the exception of the federal circuit court of appeals, which has nationwide jurisdiction over special cases. The appellate courts sit above the federal district courts and have considerable power in the decisions they make regarding appeals. It is also important to note that the size of the circuit courts differs vastly. Some circuit courts have a smaller territorial jurisdiction, while others have a larger jurisdiction. For example, the D.C. circuit only has jurisdiction over the D.C. area, while the Ninth Circuit has jurisdiction over nine states and the territories of Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands. This difference depends entirely on the caseload and decisions of Congress when creating the districts. The federal court of appeals is significant to the judicial system and holds notable power over the federal district courts. 

The Supreme Court of the United States 

The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest court of the land, and the ruling issued by the Supreme Court becomes the law of the land. The Supreme Court was established by Article III of the Constitution and now contains one chief justice along with eight associate justices. The Supreme Court term begins on the first Monday of October and goes to recess in late June or early July. Supreme Court justices are appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate. The job of these justices is to interpret the constitution and resolve significant legal questions brought by the lower district and appellate courts. The ability of the Supreme Court to interpret the constitution came from the landmark Supreme Court case Marbury v. Madison, which established judicial review. Judicial review is the ability of the courts to examine the actions conducted by other branches of government and determine whether those acts are constitutional. Initially, the Supreme Court heard appeals from state courts on the matter of federal law. Additionally, judges used to ride circuits by traveling to various regions to hear cases. However, as the caseload increased throughout the centuries, more centralized lower courts were established. In addition, the Certiorari Act of 1925 allowed the justices to hear the cases they wished to hear through a vote. Hence, granting more decisions to justices on what cases they deem legally important. In modern day, the Supreme Court receives thousands of petitions for certiorari every year and hears 50-80 cases every term. The cases granted by the Supreme Court usually present crucial legal questions that the Supreme Court deems necessary to clarify. The decisions made by the Supreme Court are determined by a majority vote. After the decision is issued, a person in the majority writes the majority decision, with others voting in the majority concurring. The justices, not in the majority, write dissents explaining the reasoning behind their decisions. The Supreme Court is designated as the highest arbiter of the law, and the decisions made by the Supreme Court become the law of the land.

Why does it all matter?

The United States court system has evolved significantly from its early formation to the twenty-first century. The courts have significant power in determining the law and applying it. By protecting individual rights and resolving disputes, the courts are a crucial component of upholding the law and ensuring equal justice under law. By serving as an independent entity, the judicial system enforces decisions impartially and ensures public trust in its institutions. The judicial system not only applies the law but also allows courts to interpret the law and determine its constitutionality. From protecting individual freedoms to resolving disputes to determining the constitutionality of the law, the courts are a pivotal part of the United States federal government. All in all, the United States judicial system is a strong institution that fights to ensure the promotion of equal justice under the law.